External and internal motivation conceptualised in terms of reinforcers and punishers
- Reinforcement increases the likelihood of a behaviour occurring in the future
- Punishment decreases the likelihood of a behaviour occurring in the future
- External reinforcers and punishers are ones that come from the outside world.
- Internal reinforcers and punishers are internal consequences created by our cognitive and emotional systems.
- Positive reinforcement involves providing a desired stimulus following behaviour.
- Negative reinforcement involves removing an aversive stimulus following behaviour Escape and avoidance conditioning.
- Positive punishment (also called punishment I) involves providing an aversive stimulus following behaviour
- Negative punishment(also called punishment II or response cost) involves removing a desired stimulus following behaviour.
From: Baker, Piper, McCarthy, Danielle Majeskie, & Fiore (2004), quote from page 33 of an article in the journal Psychological Review. The article provides an overview of a negative reinforcement model of drug addiction
“…negative affect is the motivational core of the withdrawal syndrome and [the authors] argue that, through repeated cycles of drug use and withdrawal, addicted organisms learn to detect interoceptive cues of negative affect preconsciously. Thus, the motivational basis of much drug use is opaque and tends not to reflect cognitive control. When either stressors or abstinence causes negative affect to grow and enter consciousness, increasing negative affect biases information processing in ways that promote renewed drug administration.”
Intrinsic & Extrinsice Reinforcers
- In many instances when compatible extrinsic and intrinsic reinforcers are given at the same time they compliment each other and create more powerful overall reinforcement.
- Studies have shown that under a certain set of circumstances the introduction of an additional extrinsic reinforcer may weaken an existing intrinsic reinforcer when the extrinsic reinforcer is withdrawn. This set of circumstances is that the individual has the expectation that the extrinsic reinforcer will be delivered and the extrinsic reinforcer is material rather than social. In this case removing the extrinsic reinforcer may result in a weakening of the behaviour compared to before the extrinsic reinforcer was introduced (when only the intrinsic reinforcer was in operation).
- The extent to which individuals perceive extrinsic reinforcers as providing information regarding their competence versus the extent to which they perceive external reinforcers as being meant to control them (reducing autonomy) influences their effect on intrinsic motivation.