Behaviour Modification

Strangely enough, this is the subject that got me thinking about uploading my study notes onto a blog. The problem is I love learning and thinking and I like to think that this will be a lifelong interest but I am a prototypical ‘bad student’. I have problems with reading and writing and to make things worse I can’t touch-type. I have poor time-management. I have a serious problem with procrastination and perfectionism. I am unable to stay focussed or seated for more than 15 minutes. I get extremely anxious about assessments.

Behaviour modification gives me hope but sometimes I wonder if real change is possible. Maybe the observable demonstrations of internal states may be altered but the underlying causes remain the same. It’s a question I’ve asked many people –

“Is change possible?”

I undertook this study as an external student at the University of New England and it was taught by John Malouff. The textbook we worked from was Behaviour Modification by Raymond Miltenberger.

 

BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION (Raymond Miltenberger)

Part I: MEASUREMENT OF BEHAVIOR AND BEHAVIOR CHANGE.

1. Introduction to Behaviour Modification.

2. Observing and Recording Behaviour.

RECORDING METHODS

 

Continuous recording	Product recording	Interval recording	Time sample recording
Record every instance of the behaviour occurring during the observation period. May record frequency, duration, intensity, or latency.	Record the tangible outcome or permanent product of the occurrence of the behaviour.	Record the occurrence or non-occurrence of the behaviour in consecutive intervals of time during an observation period	Record the occurrence or non-occurrence of the behaviour in discontinuous intervals of time (time samples) during an observation period.

 

1. A target behaviour is defined by identifying exactly what the person says or does that constitutes the behavioural excess or behavioural deficit targeted for change. The behavioural definition should include active verbs describing the behaviour the person exhibits.
2. The different methods you can use to record the target behaviour include continuous recording of the frequency, duration, latency, or magnitude of the behaviour; percentage of opportunity recording; product recording; interval recording; or time sample recording.
3. With continuous recording, the observer observes the client continuously throughout the observation period and records each occurrence of the behaviour. With interval and time sample recording, the observation period is divided into a number of smaller time periods or intervals and the behaviour is recorded as occurring or not occurring within each interval. With interval recording, the intervals are consecutive time periods, and with time sample recording, the intervals are separated by periods without observation.
4. Reactivity occurs when the process of behaviour recording causes the behaviour to change, even before any treatment is implemented. Reactivity can be minimized by waiting until the person being observed becomes accustomed to the observer’s presence. Another way to reduce reactivity is to observe people without letting them know they are being observed.
5. Interobserver reliability (IOR) is determined by having two observers independently record a person’s behaviour during the same observation period and then comparing the recordings of the two observers. You assess IOR to determine whether the target behaviour is being recorded consistently.

3. Graphing Behaviour and Measuring Change.

Part II: BASIC PRINCIPLES.

4. Reinforcement.

 

Continuous reinforcement:	Every instance of a behaviour is reinforced
Ratio schedules:	Reinforcement is based on the number of behaviours required
Interval schedules:	Reinforcement is based on the passage of time.
Duration schedules:	Reinforcement is based on the continued performance of a response for a period of time.
Fixed schedules:	The requirements for reinforcement are always the same.
Variable schedules:	The requirements for reinforcement change randomly.

5. Extinction.

6. Punishment.

7. Stimulus Control: Discrimination and Generalization.

8. Respondent Conditioning.

Part III: PROCEDURES TO ESTABLISH NEW BEHAVIOR.

9. Shaping.

10. Prompting and Transfer of Stimulus Control.

GUIDELINES FOR PROMPTING AND TRANSFERRING STIMULUS CONTROL

1. Choose the most appropriate prompting strategy.
2. Get the learner’s attention.
3. Present the SD.
4. Prompt the correct response.
5. Reinforce the correct behaviour.
6. Transfer stimulus control by fading or prompt delay.
7. Continue to reinforce unprompted responses.

11. Chaining.

12. Behavioural Skills Training Procedures.

Part IV: PROCEDURES TO INCREASE DESIRABLE BEHAVIOR AND DECREASE UNDESIRABLE BEHAVIOR.

13. Understanding Problem Behaviours through Functional Assessment.

Categories of Information from a Functional Assessment

 

• Problem behaviours: an objective description of the behaviours that make up the problem
• Antecedents: an objective description of environmental events preceding the problem behaviour, including aspects of the physical environment and the behaviour of other people
• Consequences: an objective description of environmental events that follow the problem behaviour, including aspects of the physical environment and the behaviour of other people
• Alternative behaviours: information on desirable behaviours in the person’s repertoire that may be reinforced to compete with the problem behaviour
• Motivational variables: information on environmental events that may function as establishing operations to influence the effectiveness of reinforcers and punishers for the problem behaviours and alternative behaviours
• Potential reinforcers: information on environmental events—including physical stimuli and the behaviour of other people—that may function as reinforcers and be used in a treatment program
• Previous interventions: information on the interventions that have been used in the past and their effects on the problem behaviour
• Observe the client and identify the reinforcer for the problem behavior.
• Observe the client and identify high-rate behaviors.
• Ask the client, parents, or teachers.
• Use reinforcer questionnaires.
• Present potential reinforcers and measure approach behaviors.
• Present potential reinforcers contingent on an operant response and measure response rate or duration.
• Eliminating the SD or cues for the problem behaviour
• Providing the SD or cues for desirable alternative behaviours
• Eliminating or diminishing an establishing operation for the reinforcer that is maintaining the problem behaviour
• Creating or enhancing an establishing operation for the reinforcer that is maintaining desirable alternative behaviours
• Increasing response effort for the problem behaviour
• Decreasing response effort for desirable alternative behaviours
• Presenting the SD or supplemental stimuli (cues) that have stimulus control over the desired behaviour
• Arranging an establishing operation such that the consequence of the desirable behaviour is more reinforcing
• Decreasing the response effort for the desirable behaviour
• Removing the SD or cues for the competing behaviours
• Eliminating establishing operations for the outcome of the competing behaviours
• Increasing the response effort for the competing behaviours

14. Applying Extinction.

15. Differential Reinforcement.

HOW TO IDENTIFY REINFORCERS

16. Antecedent Control Procedures.

Antecedent Manipulations to Decrease Problem Behaviours and Increase Desirable Behaviors

Manipulating discriminative stimuli (SDs) or cues

Manipulating establishing operations

Manipulating response effort

ANTECEDENT MANIPULATIONS THAT EVOKE A DESIRED RESPONSE

ANTECEDENT MANIPULATIONS THAT MAKE UNDESIRABLE COMPETING RESPONSES LESS LIKELY

 

17. Using Punishment: Time-Out and Response Cost

Comparing Response Cost, Time-out, and Extinction

 

extinction the problem behavior is no longer followed by the reinforcing event that previously maintained the behavior. time-out the person is removed from access to all sources of reinforcement contingent on the problem behavior.   response cost a specific amount of a reinforcer the person already possesses is removed after the problem behavior.

 

CONSIDERATIONS IN USING TIME-OUT

• What is the function of the problem behaviour?
• Is time-out practical in the circumstances?
• Is time-out safe?
• Is the time-out period brief?
• Can escape from time-out be prevented?
• Can interactions be avoided during time-out?
• Is time-out acceptable in the circumstances?
• Which reinforcer will be removed?
• Is the reinforcer loss immediate or delayed?
• Is the reinforcer loss ethical?
• Is response cost practical and acceptable?

CONSIDERATIONS IN USING RESPONSE COST

18. Positive Punishment Procedures and the Ethics of Punishment.

 

Cautions in the Application of Aversive Activities

• The application of aversive activities should be used only when the change agent can provide physical guidance.
• The change agent must anticipate that the client may resist the physical guidance, at least initially, and must be certain that he or she can carry out the procedure if the client does resist physically.
• The change agent must be certain that the physical guidance involved in the procedure is not reinforcing to the client. If such physical contact is reinforcing, the procedure will not function as punishment.
• The change agent must be certain that the procedure can be conducted with no harm to the client or change agent. This is particularly important when the client resists and struggles with the change agent during the implementation of the procedure, with the risk for injury to both.
• A number of considerations must be addressed before positive punishment procedures are used.
• Use functional nonaversive procedures first. If extinction, differential reinforcement, and antecedent manipulations do not produce satisfactory changes in the problem behavior, punishment procedures may be considered.
• Implement differential reinforcement with punishment. Differential reinforcement of an alternative behavior (DRA) or the absence of the problem behavior (differential reinforcement of other behavior [DRO]) should always be used in conjunction with punishment. In this way, the focus of intervention is on increasing desirable behavior to replace the problem behavior that is eliminated or decreased.
• Consider the function of the problem behavior. You will always conduct a functional assessment of the problem behavior before deciding on treatment. This allows you to choose the most appropriate functional treatment (extinction, differential reinforcement, antecedent manipulations).
• Choose the aversive stimulus with care. When planning to use positive punishment procedures involving an aversive stimulus, you must first determine that the stimulus is indeed aversive. Different stimuli function as reinforcers and punishers for different people and in different contexts.
• Collect data to make treatment decisions. A punishment procedure should produce a rapid decrease in the problem behavior.
• Address the ethical considerations in the use of punishment.
• Reinforcing instances of generalization
• Training skills that contact natural contingencies of reinforcement
• Modifying natural contingencies of reinforcement and punishment
• Incorporating a wide range of relevant stimulus situations in training
• Incorporating common stimuli
• Teaching a range of functionally equivalent responses
• Incorporating self-generated mediators of generalization

CONSIDERATIONS IN USING POSITIVE PUNISHMENT

19. Promoting Generalization.

Strategies for Promoting Generalization of Behaviour Change

Part V: OTHER BEHAVIOR CHANGE PROCEDURES.
20. Self-Management.

Antecedent Manipulations

Antecedent manipulations often are used by people in self- management programs to influence their own behaviour. Recall that in an antecedent manipulation, you modify the environment in some way before the target behaviour occurs to influence the future occurrence of the target behaviour (Epstein, 1996).

Six types of antecedent manipulations to increase the likelihood of a target behavior are

• Presenting the discriminative stimulus (SD) or cues for the desirable target
• behaviour
• Removing the SD or cues for competing undesirable behaviours
• Arranging an establishing operation for the desirable target behaviour
• Removing establishing operations for the competing behaviors
• Decreasing the response effort for the desirable target behavior
• Increasing the response effort for the competing behaviors

 

Categories of Self-Management Strategies Used to Decrease or Increase the Level of a Target Behavior

Antecedent manipulations to increase a desirable behavior and decrease an undesirable behavior

• Present discriminative stimulus (SD) or cues for the desirable behavior.
• Eliminate SD or cues for the undesirable behaviors.
• Arrange establishing operations for the desirable behavior.
• Eliminate establishing operations for the undesirable behaviors.
• Decrease response effort for the desirable behavior.
• Increase response effort for the undesirable behaviors.
• Provide reinforcers for the desirable behavior.
• Eliminate reinforcers for the undesirable behaviors.
• Eliminate punishers for the desirable behavior.
• Provide punishers for the undesirable behaviors.
• Use skills training procedures to teach desirable behaviors.

Consequence manipulations to increase a desirable behavior and decrease an undesirable behavior

STEPS IN A SELF-MANAGEMENT PLAN

1. Make the decision to engage in self-management.
2. Define the target behaviour and competing behaviours.
3. Set goals.
4. Self-monitor.
5. Conduct a functional assessment.
6. Choose appropriate self-management strategies.
7. Evaluate change.
8. Re-evaluate self-management strategies.
9. Implement maintenance strategies.

21. Habit Reversal Procedures.

HABIT REVERSAL COMPONENTS

• Awareness training
• Competing response training
• Social support
• Motivation procedures

24. Fear and Anxiety Reduction Procedures.

Ten Relaxed Behaviors

Behavioral relaxation training consists of a description of ten postures and activities characteristic of a fully relaxed person whose body is fully supported by a reclining chair or similar device. Each behavior consists of an overt posture or activity of a particular region of the body. To enhance discrimination, both relaxed and some commonly occurring unrelaxed behaviors are presented for each item.

1.    Head

Relaxed The head is motionless and supported by the recliner, with the nose in the midline of the body. Body midline usually can be determined by clothing features such as shirt buttons or apex of V neckline; part of the nostrils and the underside of the chin are also visible.

Unrelaxed Movement of the head. Head turned from body midline; the entire nose is beyond midline. Head tilted downward; the nostrils and underside of the chin are not visible. Head unsupported by the recliner. Head tilted upward; the entire underside of the chin is visible. The eyelids are lightly closed, with a smooth appearance and no motion of the eyes beneath the lids.

2.    Eyes

Relaxed

Unrelaxed Eyes open. Eyelids closed but wrinkled or fluttering. Eyes moving under the lids.

 

3.    Mouth

Relaxed The lips are parted at the center of the mouth from .25 to 1 inch (7 to 25 mm), with the front teeth also parted. Teeth in occlusion. Lips closed.

Unrelaxed Mouth open more than 1 inch (25 mm); in most cases, the corners of the mouth separate when the mouth is open beyond criterion. Tongue motion, such as licking lips.

 

4.    Throat

Relaxed Absence of motion.

Unrelaxed Any movement in the throat and neck, such as swallowing or other larynx action, twitches in the neck muscles.

 

5.    Shoulders

Relaxed Both shoulders appear rounded and transect the same horizontal plane. They rest against the recliner with no motion other than respiration.

Unrelaxed Movement of shoulders. Shoulders on a diagonal plane. Shoulders are raised or lowered so as not to appear rounded.

6.    Body

Relaxed The body is relaxed when the torso, hips, and legs are symmetric around midline, resting against the chair, with no movement.

Unrelaxed Any movement of the torso, excluding respiration. Twisting of torso, hips, or legs out of midline. Any movement of the hips, legs, or arms that does not result in movement of feet or hands. (These are scored separately.) Any part of the back, buttocks, or legs not supported by the recliner.

 

7.    Hands

Relaxed Both hands are resting on the armrest of the chair or on the lap, with palms down and the fingers curled in a clawlike fashion. The fingers are sufficiently curled if a pencil can pass freely beneath the highest point of the arc (excluding the thumb).

Unrelaxed Hands gripping the armrest. Fingers extended and straight. Fingers curled so that nails touch the surface of the armrest. Fingers intertwined. Movement of the hands. The feet are pointed away from each other at an angle between 60 and 90 degrees.

8.    Feet

Relaxed

Unrelaxed Movement of feet. Feet pointing vertically or at angle less than 60 degrees. Feet pointing out at an angle greater than 90 degrees. Feet crossed at the ankles. One heel placed more than 1 inch (25 mm) fore or aft of the other

.

9.    Quiet

Relaxed No vocalizations or loud respiratory sounds.

Unrelaxed Any verbalization or vocalization, such as talking, sighing, grunting, snoring, gasping, coughing. The breath frequency is less than that observed during baseline, with no breathing interruptions. One breath equals one complete cycle of inhalation and exhalation. A breath is counted if any part of the inhalation occurs on the cue starting the observation interval and any part of the exhalation occurs on the cue ending the observation interval.

10. Breathing

Relaxed

Unrelaxed Breath frequency is equal to or greater than that during baseline. Any irregularity that interrupts the regular rhythm of breathing, such as coughing, laughing, yawning, and sneezing.

 

(From Poppen, R. [1988]. Behavioral Relaxation Training and Assessment, pp. 30–34. Copyright © 1988 Pergamon Press.)

 

25. Cognitive Behaviour Modification.

Situation ® Thoughts or Emotions ® Behavioural Outcome

 

STEPS IN COGNITIVERE STRUCTURING

1. Identify distressing thoughts and situations.
2. Identify emotional response or behaviour that follows the thoughts.
3. Work to decrease distressing thoughts and replace them with more rational or desirable thinking.